[Python] Several APIs segfault when required Arrow object arguments are `None`

[marinelay]

Summary

Several PyArrow APIs whose signatures require Arrow extension objects reject invalid types with TypeError, but accept None and then terminate the interpreter.
I would expect None to be rejected with TypeError, like the other invalid types, rather than causing a process crash.
I found these cases while fuzzing Python C extension modules.

Versions

PyArrow 25.0.1, CPython 3.12.3, Debian 12 x86_64, glibc 2.36

Reproducer

Run each command independently in a fresh process.

python -c 'import pyarrow.parquet as pq; pq.SortingColumn.from_ordering(None, [])'
python -c 'import pyarrow as pa; import pyarrow.dataset as ds; ds.FileSystemDataset([None], pa.schema([]), ds.ParquetFileFormat())'
python -c 'import pyarrow as pa; dictionary=pa.array([], type=pa.string()); buffers=[None, pa.py_buffer(b"")]; pa.DictionaryArray.from_buffers(None, 0, buffers, dictionary)'

SortingColumn.from_ordering     SIGSEGV (signal 11)
FileSystemDataset               SIGSEGV (signal 11)
DictionaryArray.from_buffers    SIGSEGV (signal 11)

ASan/UBSan result

I built PyArrow 25.0.0 from source with Clang 18 using ASan and UBSan instrumentation.
The first sanitizer failures were:

API	First native failure
SortingColumn.from_ordering()	member call on a null arrow::Schema in parquet::arrow::ToParquetSchema() at cpp/src/parquet/arrow/schema.cc:1233
FileSystemDataset()	member access through a null FileFragment extension pointer at build/_dataset.cpp:23011
DictionaryArray.from_buffers()	member call on a null arrow::DataType in arrow::ArrayData::Make() at cpp/src/arrow/array/data.cc:118

ASan subsequently reports zero-page reads on the corresponding native paths and aborts each process with exit code 134.

Component(s)

Python

[marinelay]

I found three additional APIs that appear to have the same issue:

python -c 'from pyarrow import acero; acero.ScanNodeOptions(None)'
python -c 'import pyarrow.parquet as pq; pq.ParquetSchema(None)'
python -c 'import pyarrow.dataset as ds; ds.get_partition_keys(None)'

Each command terminates independently with SIGSEGV (signal 11) on PyArrow 25.0.0, CPython 3.12.3, Ubuntu 24.04 x86_64, and glibc 2.39.

I think that explicit None checks similar to those added in PR #51161 may be needed for these arguments as well.